Mitochondrial DNA Analysis: Techniques and Applications

Mitochondrial DNA Analysis: Techniques and Applications Introduction Because of advancements in technology and techniques, mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) analysis has become a common method in forensic procedure. Polymorphisms in human mtDNA were first discovered in 1980 (Brown 1980) while a complete sequence was first achieved in 1981 (Anderson et al., 1981). MtDNA sequencing is frequently used in cases where biological samples are degraded or low in quality, instead of nuclear DNA (nDNA), because each cell contains more than 1000 copies of mtDNA per cell instead of only two per cell in the case of nDNA. This article will examine the background information and techniques of mtDNA analysis as well as several of its applications. Background Information Mitochondrial DNA is located outside the nucleus of a cell in organelles known as mitochondria. The chief advantage of mtDNA is the fact that it is present at a rate of between 100 and several thousand times per cell, making it much easier to be typed than nuclear DNA (James and Nordby, 2005). This characteristic makes mtDNA a very useful tool in a sample that is either degraded or limited in quantity. Its typical sources include hair, bones, teeth and bodily fluid such as saliva, blood, and semen. Another feature of mtDNA is that it is maternally inherited so a sample can be collected from any member of the maternal lineage (Giles et al. 1980). The mtDNA for humans is ~16,569 base pairs and consists of two regions, the control region and the coding region. The control region is located in the displacement loop (D-loop), and contains hypervariable regions 1, 2, and 3 (HVI, HVII, and HVIII). HVI and HVII are sufficiently polymorphic to allow two samples to be differentiated. However, HVIII is currently being assessed to determine its capacity for use in discriminating between individuals and could one day be used to increase the discerning power of mtDNA. The D-loop of mtDNA does not contain any functional genes, and accumulates mutations at a rate of up to 10 times that of nDNA (James and Nordby, 2005). See image below for a sample mtDNA structure. The HVI region is approximately 341 base pairs (bp) in length while the HVII region is 267bp. The other regions in the mtDNA genome have been successfully analyzed but have not been frequently used in forensic works because they havent been proven sufficiently hypervariable. Techniques of mtDNA Analysis The methods for mtDNA typing have gradually changed over the past thirty years. The process has gradually changed protocols from low-resolution restriction length polymorphism (RFLP) analysis to sequence analysis of the HVII and HVII regions and is moving towards a complete sequence of the mtDNA genome for each case. The sequencing and comparison of the mtDNA can be broken down into four steps: Extraction, polymerase chain reaction (PCR) amplification, sequencing, and comparison. Extraction A biological sample contains main substances besides DNA. The purpose of extraction is to separate the other material from the DNA before it is examined. The sample is prepared and mixed with certain organic chemicals that lyse the cell membranes, separate proteins from the DNA, and then denature the proteins and destroy their structures to decrease their solubility. Using a phenol chloroform, the denatured proteins are removed. The DNA is then purified using ethanol precipitation and isolation by centrifuge. PCR Amplification The polymerase chain reaction is process similar to the one used by cells to copy their own DNA. By using this process, a relatively small number of copies could be multiplied into over a billion in around thirty cycles. PCR amplification is a three step process. First, the two mtDNA strands are denatured by heat at 94 °C. This means the strands separate from each other into two equal and opposite strands. Second, the sample is cooled to 60 °C and the primers bind to the DNA template, which gives a start sequence to the DNA polymerase in step three, which extends the primers by adding the respective nucleic acids to the base strand and completes the sequence, thus turning one copy of the DNA into two. By repeating this process, the number of copies increases exponentially. Sequencing The primary sequencing method in mtDNA analysis is known as the Sanger method, which is a six step process that builds off the PCR amplification. First, the removal of remaining Deoxyribonucleotide triphosphates (dNTP) and primers from PCR through spin filtration or enzyme digestion is required. The PCR quantity is then found to determine if there is enough product to sequence the DNA. Then, four different colored fluorescent dyes are attached to the four differenet ddNTPs. After that, the unincorporated dyes from the sequencing reaction are removed using spin filtration. The purified sequencing reaction is then diluted in foramide and separated through gel electrophoresis. Finally, the sequence analysis of each reaction performed is compiled and interpreted. Comparison After sequencing the HVI and HVII regions of the DNA, the sequences are confirmed with the forward and reverse strands for that sample. Differences are then noted from the revised Anderson sequence, which is the newest standard for mtDNA. Finally, the known and the unknown samples are compared with each other and then compared with the database to determine halotype frequency. Applications As previously stated, current applications of mtDNA analysis are best suited to DNA which is very old and highly degraded. Some of the applications in this include individual identification, evolutionary biology, and maternal lineage testing. Individual Identification MtDNA can play a considerable role in the identification of individuals in which the biological sample would be highly degraded, for example, identifying remains of unknown soldiers. In June, 1998, a DNA sample from one of the US tombs of the unknown was collected and compared to reference samples from seven different families who had lost a family member during the war. The results eliminated six of the families, and provided a positive identification on the final family. The results proved consistent and the soldier was identified as Air Force First Lieutenant Michael J. Blassie. In this case, the small, closed population allowed relative ease of identification. To date, the remains of around 150 soldiers from the Vietnam War and 1,200 from the Korean War have been reunited with their families. Evolutionary Biology There are two main hypotheses about human evolution and phylogenic trees trying to guess where the human race branches off from the rest of the animal kingdom and spread all over the world. The multiregional evolution suggests that modern humans evolved from Neanderthals and Homo erectus at the same time in different parts of the world. This hypothesis is supported by fossil evidence, particularly a gradual change in facial structure from earlier to modern humans. The other hypothesis suggests a more recent African origin around 100,000 200,000 years ago, in which a small group of modern humans populated the rest of the world. This would have been done without mixing genetic material with other forms of humans. Because the human mitochondrial genome was one of the first to be completely sequenced, it took researchers a while to see the advantage of sequencing the entire genome. First, mutations in the D-loop occur at a rate 5-10 times faster than that of normal nDNA, and having the complete genome showed the same polymorphism on two different loci. Also, while the D-loop was changing at a high rate, mutations outside the D-loop were near zero, allowing the rate of evolution for the rest of the genome to be seen clearly and evenly between different complexes. The data collected gives evidence to support the recent African origin theory. By finding the substitution rate between the sequences, it is possible to find dates at which the genetic material coincided with itself and thus makes it possible to find approximate dates and points on the phylogenic tree. From this information, the sequence of events in human evolution can be established. The data suggests a severe population constriction around 180,000 years ago. (Brown, 1980) This evidence supports the recent African origin hypothesis while with the multiregional hypothesis you would expect to see this constriction at an older date. Maternal Lineage Because mtDNA testing can be done with a smaller quantity of DNA, it is well suited for maternity testing and forming a family tree. Right now, mtDNA is the most common form of DNA analysis performed to determine parental maternity testing today. Obviously, this is used in the legal system for the purpose of deciding custody battles. MtDNA also has precedence in accurately performing historical identifications through maternal lineage. A famous case of this would most likely be the case in which Jesse James body was identified by using a comparison between his DNA and the great-great-granddaughter of his sister. This lineage would provide a positive match if in fact it was Jesse James remains, which in fact it was. However, the James case was not without its faults. The initial attempts at mtDNA analysis of the bone specimens from the specimen were not successful. More, specifically, there was no product formation during the Polymerase Chain Reaction. The most likely cause of this type of error would be the poor condition the material was in.(Stone et al. 2001) After running several tests on the bones, teeth and hair of the remains, mtDNA was collected and analyzed from two molar teeth and two hair fibers. This just shows that while mtDNA analysis has the possibility for up to 100% exclusion, because of mix-ups, laboratory errors, contamination, and degradation, its not 100% accurate. Conclusion Because of its impact on the forensic community, mtDNA analysis has become a power discrimination tool in forensic science. The methods that have been developed over the past thirty years have been firmly founded in scientific research. Each tool used in the aid of sequencing the mtDNA has a specific purpose that plays an important part the analysis as a whole. As technologies evolve, the discriminating power goes up, as in the case of adding the HVIII loci to the standard, and the error rates go down because of new information regarding contamination prevention procedures and determining the presence of degraded sample. Finally, by applying all of these concepts to the forensic world, mtDNA analysis becomes a powerful tool that has the potential to trace lineages, prove maternity, and identify unknown persons. References Anderson, S., Bankier, A.T., Barrel, B.G., Bruijn, M.H.L., Courlson, A.R., Drouin, J., Eperon,I.C., Nierlich, D.P., Roe, B.A., Sanger, F., Schreier, P.H., Smith, A., Staden, R., and Young, I.G., 1981, Sequence and Organization of the Human Mitochondrial Genome.MRC Laborator of Molecular Biology, Hills Road, Cambridge, UK Brown, W. M. 1980 Polymorphism in mitochondrial DNA of humans as revealed by restriction endonuclease analysis Proc. Nati. Acad. Sci. USAVol. 77, No. 6, pp. 3605-3609 Butler, J. 2005, Forensic DNA Typing. Elsevier Science pp.242-298 Giles, R.E., Blanc, H., Cann, H.M., and Wallace, D.C. .1980, Maternal inheritance of human mitochondrial DNA, Proc. Nati. Acad. Sci. USAVol. 77, No. 11, pp. 6715-6719, Ingman, M. ,2001,Mitochondrial DNA Clarifies Human Evolution, http://www.actionbioscience.org/evolution/ingman.html Image Source: MtDNA. http://www.nfstc.org/pdi/Subject09/images/pdi_s09_m02_01_a.1_large.jpg James, S.H. and Nordby, J.J. 2005, Forensic Science: an introduction to scientific and investigative techniques. N.W. Ciroirate Blvd., Boca Raton, Florida Michael Blassie Unknown No More, 2006, http://www.nlm.nih.gov/visibleproofs//galleries/cases/blassie.html Stone A.C., Starrs J.E., Stoneking, M. Mitochondrial DNA analysis of the presumptive remains of Jesse James. J of Forensic Sci 2001;46(1):173-176. What is the relationship between the cold war and the war on terror’ in afghanistan? What is the relationship between the cold war and the war on terror’ in afghanistan? What is the relationship between the Cold War and the ‘War on Terror in Afghanistan? How far can one be said to be the continuation of the other? Introduction The Cold War period lasted for nearly 45 years, from 1945 to 1991. It began at the end of the Second World War and with the collapse of the Soviet Union. The war was the stage for the Wests struggle against communist ideas and changes. This long wearing conflict brought to pass an increase in production and trade of arms and an appearance of a new world order formed by America. The main principle of the cold war can be seen as the East-West competition in ideas, arms and spheres of influence. (REF) After Afghan terrorists dramatically attacked the United States on September 11, 2001; America declared a war on terror and flew its troops into Afghanistan in pursuit of avenging their nation and capturing al-Qaeda leader Osama bin Laden. Again America found itself in opposition to the East, nevertheless this time a different region. And Again the East was fighting against this new world order and Americas quest for world domination in a globalising world. The aim of the essay is to explore the relationship between the cold war and the ‘war on terror in Afghanistan and to find similarities in political patterns and warfare, in order to answer the question. Main Body History Main question Relationship The cold war marked the struggle between America and the USSR after the Second World War. The war influenced international affairs majorly. It influenced the way conflicts were handled, the way countries were divided up and the increasing growth in weaponry production. The United States of America as well as the USSR had weapons of mass destructions in nuclear form, which formed a global threat for all humanity. However, both superpowers were aware of the exceeding dangers of their nuclear weapons. Therefore they would not fight an open war against each other. However they fought wars by proxy, supporting other countries to fight each other on their behalf. An example of this is the Vietnam War. While the Soviets supported the communist north of Vietnam, the United States supplied the anti-communist south with weapons and fighters. Therefore it was not just a war between North and South Vietnam but a proxy war between the Soviet Union and America. America perceived the USSR as anti-d emocratic and as oppressor of civil liberties. However one can argue that capitalist America was opposing the USSR because they were spreading communist ideas and they were anti-capitalist and therefore an obstacle to global domination. (REF) The USSR perceived America as severe threat to their communist borders. Both parties lived in a form of paranoia about one another, with feelings of suspicions and distrust and this lack of understanding of politics and cultures lead to a dangerous course, which was the cold war. In the late 1970s Afghanistan was experiencing political difficulties. Hazifullah Amin, the prime minister had a plan to change Afghan politics and society and to do away with Muslim traditions in order to introduce a more western system. This did not please most Afghans who valued their Muslim traditions. Therefore they joined the mujahideen, a guerrilla group who opposed Amins regime and Soviet intervention. It is interesting to know that the Taliban are a faction derived from a group of mujahideen. (REF) The Soviets fought a hopeless war against the group in the unfamiliar territories of the mountains. Though the Russians were a superpower they did not prevail against the guerrillas, who they deemed terrorists. The mujahideen eventually overthrew the Afghan government and drove out the Russians. Furthermore, it is believed that the mujahideen had sponsors as well as access to American missiles. As such it can be argued that America used the guerrilla group as proxy against communi st Russia. Now at the beginning of the twenty-first century, many years after the cold war, a different yet similar type of threat engages the United States. Terrorism nowadays is part of constant political debate. America was wounded deeply on 9/11 which lead the nation to fight on open ended war against terrorism and to invade Afghanistan. The nation believed, as former US president George W. Bush said that the al-Qaeda and Taliban were evil doers who continued the course of fascism, Nazism and totalitarianism. (Ref) Bush himself here draws a parallel to the Cold war. Further he states that â€Å"either you are with us or you are with the terrorists†. (CNN) Terrorism was an evil that had to be fought and neutralised. Afghanistan needed to be freed from its extremism and it needed a reasonable system with liberal democracies and western values. Again there was a divide between the west and the east and between freedom and oppression. And again on both sides there was the readiness to im mediately use powerful military force. However one important difference between both wars is that during the cold war, though wars were fought by proxy, the opposing nations still had civilised meetings and debates in order to find a peaceful solution. The war on terror however, did or does not leave room or time for negotiation. Whether the perception of the threat was exaggerated or the response appropriate has been debated since day one of the invasion. However America should not have been so quick to invade Afghanistan. There are many reasons for this argument, firstly because Afghanistan as a country did not attack the United States but it was the work of a small group of people in Afghanistan. (REF) Secondly America should have aimed to meet with leaders of the Afghan government to discuss a cooperation in order to capture terrorists groups and to tackle the problem internally. If this would have failed, the States would look for other alternatives and if all cooperation faile d, then threaten the country with an invasion. America was wounded, it was hurt, ashamed and scared and yes it was angry and demanded action, yet the action it took was not the right one. It has been over eight years since the invasion of the Middle East and not much has been achieved. As the Cold war can be describes as a war of ideas, so can the war on terror be describes as a war of ideas and values. The Cold war was a competition and struggle for power.   It lasted for decades but the states involved did negotiate and did meet in discussion to find possible solutions to the conflict. In contrast, the war on terror does not accept negotiations between the west and the terrorists. Though there are cooperation between many states worldwide to combat terrorism, there is no real communication between the states who matter, namely between the West and the East. However during both wars America dealt with a perceived threat and fear of the foreign. There emerged a new national security state with internal surveillance and increased security measures. (REF) Nowadays more and more intelligent surveillance technology is being developed. However these inventions might not always be ethical and they do pose a threat to civil liberties. In the case of the newly manufactur ed 3D full body scanners at airports, which are so detailed that it becomes possible to perfectly see a person naked, people and groups have been outraged. The state faces a difficult decision between increased security and the protection of peoples privacy. (The Guardian) However, the terrorist threat of al-Qaeda also can be seen as different from the danger of the USSR. While the al-Qaeda is a relatively small group, the Soviet Union is an enormously large state, with a great amount of nuclear weapons, forces and allies. While the first was about a struggle for power, the later is a struggle against the influence of western capitalism and mistreatments. Nevertheless both the Soviet Union and the al-Qaeda were and are fighting against capitalist ideas. This is not to suggest that Russia has terrorist features. But it is to identify the relationship between the two conflicts. Thus it can be said that there is a continuation of the fight against capitalism and therefore a continuation of the conflict between the West and the East. Also this conflict is a fight against globalisation. As capitalism thrives on an ever shrinking and interconnected world, with open borders and free markets which globalisation facilitates.

Transfer of Learning

1. IntroductionTransportation of Learning â€Å" That about charming nexus between schoolroom public presentation and something which is supposed to go on in the existent universe † – J. M. Swinney. ( Everett, 2010 ) Transportation of larning occurs when larning in one context or with one set of stuffs impacts on public presentation in another context or with other related stuffs. It is the application of cognition, attitudes and accomplishments acquired in a course of study at a university ( Perkins, 1992 ) . Transportation of larning occurs when larning in one context enhances ( positive transportation ) or undermines ( negative transportation ) a related public presentation in another context. Transfer includes near transportation ( to closely related contexts and public presentations ) and far transportation ( to instead different contexts and public presentations ) . ( Perkins, 1992 ) . One of the major constructs in instruction and larning theory is the transportation of larning construct. Typically the ultimate contexts of application ( occupation, calling ) diverge conspicuously from the context of larning ( schoolrooms, exercising books, trials, simple streamlined undertakings ) . As a consequence, the concluding ends of instruction are non realized unless transportation occurs. Furthermore, transportation of knowledge/learning can non be taken for granted ; as it is shown in assorted surveies were frequently the hoped transportation from larning experiences did non happen ( Perkins, 1992 ) . In add-on, for bettering instruction non merely this transportation of larning construct is of importance but besides the development of the teaching staff is indispensable The subject of this survey is to look into if instructors within the module of wellness medical specialty and life scientific disciplines ( FHML ) of the University of Maastricht besides are cognizant of this â€Å"transfer of learning† . Additionally, I would wish to look into if the instructor has a certain scheme refering transportation of acquisition and is portion of a professional development plan to better the instruction aka the transportation of cognition / acquisition.2. Description of the instructor.Dr. Herman Popeijus, is learning for approximately 4 at the University of Maastricht. He is chiefly learning first twelvemonth pupils, because since a twelvemonth he is the unit coordinator of the 2nd unit in the first twelvemonth of Health Sciences at the FHML. Furthermore he is involved in other units as a coach or as a accomplishments ( or practical ) trainer, although this is more in the course of study of Bio Medical Life Sciences at the FHML. In his function as unit coordinator, Herman, is involved in all facets of instruction, giving talks, steering workgroups and helping accomplishments developing for the first twelvemonth pupils. This interview was held Thursday, 25-03-2010, from 14:00 – 14:20 in the office of the interviewer. The interview was held in Dutch and taped utilizing a digital voice recording equipment. To hold a more natural treatment about the instruction methods and to bury about the voice recording equipment, the first 5 proceedingss of the interview were about day-to-day topics. Although the interviewer had some inquiries prepared as a guideline to direct the interview. An English interlingual rendition of the transcript is given in appendix A.3. AnalysisNo one method of content analysis can be used for all types of interview informations. Contented analysis is a widely used qualitative research technique. Rather than being a individual method, current applications of content analysis show three distinguishable attacks: conventional, directed, or summational ( Hsieh & A ; Shannon, 2005 ) . These attacks are used to construe significance from the content of text informations or transcrip t informations of an interview. In conventional content analysis, coding classs are derived straight from the text informations. With a directed attack, analysis starts with a theory or relevant research findings as counsel for initial codifications. A summational content analysis involves numbering and comparings, normally of keywords or content, followed by the reading of the underlying context. In this paper I choose the directed attack, with counsel for initial codifications. The focal point of the analysis is to look for schemes and for indicant of transportation of cognition by the instructor. The undermentioned codes/chategories were chosen: 1. Personal engagement in learning ; 2. Problems identified by the instructor ; 3. Solutions to the jobs ; 4. Professional development.4. Consequences4.1. Personal engagement in learningThe instructor gave multiple statements about this subject, as he is a unit coordinator his personal engagement in instruction is really profound. Due to this function, he is besides really involved in the content and may experience responsible for the result, ( e.g. class of his pupils ) . Therefore he is really focussed on transportation of cognition. He is besides cognizant of he ‘s possible short approachs, and is interested in the sentiments of the pupils about his instruction method. He tries to look into if transportation of cognition has occurred, coming back in his coach group on the subject, besides repeat indispensable stairss once more at the terminal of the coach group, or inquiring directed inquiry during his talks.4.2. Problems identified by the instructorAlthough, the instructor mentioned that there are several hard subjects or constructs in his unit, merely one illustration was given, but this was discussed extensively. Furthermore, he was cognizant that these jobs may besides be due to the fact that a big portion of the pupils have no anterior cognition of biological science and that biological science is card inal for this unit in which he is the unit coordinator.4.3. Solutions to the jobsThe chief focal point on work outing the jobs or job discussed was the usage of new electronic AIDSs. Such as available alive films, which are demoing these new constructs or jobs in great item. It has to be noted that the instructor was cognizant of the defects of this solution. However, the instructor did non advert other options, such as analogies which may be used alternatively every bit good.4.4. Professional developmentIt became clear from the interview that there is some kind of professional development plan available at his organisation, but so far he has non got any rating. The instructor feels this deficiency of aid a great girl. Although he mention that he took action on this point on his ain, by delegating to a specific instruction class, which is provide by his organisation. The instructor is really focused on the results from the pupils, and besides gives great value to the ratings from th e pupils, even though these are most in paper formats and non unwritten.5. Conclusion/Advice to the instructorDr. H. Popeijus ( HP ) has a clear position on his unit and what are the jobs within this unit, as became clear that for his unit some biological science background is necessary. His consciousness on instruction is really unfastened and modern ; he is integrating new techniques or characteristics in his talks. He is unfastened for the sentiments of the pupils and is clearly involved in transportation of cognition or acquisition, even though he might non be cognizant of this. From assorted surveies is known that the attending span of pupils is limited in the context of long talks. The â€Å"information transfer† theoretical account of the traditional talks does non fit what current cognitive scientific discipline research tells us of human acquisition ( Middendorf, 1996 ) . So by utilizing extra tools HP is seeking to act upon the information transportation during his talks. He besides mentions that he is cognizant of the drawback of utilizing alive films in his talks. However, with consciousness of the possible drawbacks of the big format, talks can be used as valuable tools for larning besides in a PBL course of study ( Fyrenius, Bergdahl, & A ; Silen, 2005 ) . Furthermore, it might besides be helpful to utilize analogies next to alive films because it can assist pupils to utilize the information they already understand to develop an apprehension of new constructs. Analogies are comparings between two spheres that are neither, wholly similar nor wholly different. These comparings are used to advance transportation of information from one specific job to another peculiar job ( MaryKay & A ; George, 2006 ) . Due to the fact that some pupils lack the biological science background it may useful to utilize analogies which domain is non in biological science but in another more basic field ( eg. Book with chapters as an analogy for DNA codification with cistrons ) . To better instruction or the instruction by staff members a high-quality professional development constituent would be of great value to the administration every bit good as add-on to the professional development of HP. â€Å"It is good recognized by policymakers that schools can be no better than the instructors and decision makers who work within them† ( Guskey, 2002 ) . It is good known that staff members or module members are passionate about their discipline/profession. They are besides really acute to reassign their cognition and the significance of this cognition to their pupils. Regardless of these good purposes, they may be so occupied with covering the capable affair that they lose path of how much of that stuff truly gets conveyed ( Montgomery, 1998 ) . It is hence that there are good developmental plans inside the institute or university to develop and alter the manner the instructors work. For most instructors, to go a better instructor means heightening pupils la rning results ( Guskey, 2002 ) . Harmonizing to the theoretical account from Guskey, of import alteration in instructors ‘ mentalities take topographic point after the instructors ‘ see grounds of betterments in pupil acquisition. When instructors have used new instructional attacks, or utilizing new stuff these betterments may happen. It is hence that there is a good ratings system for the instructors non merely on the degree of pupils outcome but besides on the public presentation as a instructor ego. An advice to HP is to seek such rating and counsel from his ain institute or administration. In drumhead the advice to HP is, maintain up with the new inventions in your talks, but besides seek to utilize analogies to clear up some hard jobs and seek to happen out if the university has some teacher staff development plans to better the instruction. Transfer of Learning Transfer of learning is the study of the dependency of human conduct, learning, or performance on prior experience. The notion was originally introduced as transfer of practice by Edward Thorndike and Robert S. Woodworth. They explored how individuals would transfer learning in one context to another context that shared similar characteristics – or more formally how â€Å"improvement in one mental function† could influence another related one.Their theory implied that transfer of learning depends on the proportion to which the learning task and the transfer task are similar, or where â€Å"identical elements are concerned in the influencing and influenced function†, now known as identical element theory. Transfer research has since attracted much attention in numerous domains, producing a wealth of empirical findings and theoretical interpretations.However, there remains considerable controversy about how transfer of learning should be conceptualized and explaine d, what its probability occurrence is, what its relation is to learning in general, or whether it may be said to exist at all. Most discussions of transfer to date can be developed from a common operational definition, describing it as the process and the effective extent to which past experiences (also referred to as the transfer source) affect learning and performance in a current novel situation (the transfer target) (Ellis, 1965; Woodworth, 1938).This, however, is usually where the general consensus between various research approaches ends. Transfer taxonomies Of the various attempts to delineate transfer, typological and taxonomic approaches belong to the more common ones (see, e. g. , Barnett & Ceci, 2002; Butterfield, 1988; Detterman, 1993; Gagne, 1977; Reeves & Weisberg, 1994; Salomon & Perkins, 1989; Singley & Anderson, 1989). Taxonomies are concerned with distinguishing different types of transfer, and therefore less involved with labeling the actual vehicle of transfer, i . e. , what is the explanatory mental unit of transfer that is carried over.Hence, a key problem with many transfer taxonomies is that they offer an excessive number of labels for different types of transfer without engaging in a discussion of the underlying concepts that would justify their distinction; i. e. , similarity and the nature of transferred information. This makes it very difficult to appreciate the internal validity of the models. The following table presents different types of transfer, as adapted from Schunk (2004, p. 220). TypeCharacteristics NearOverlap between situations, original and transfer contexts are similar. FarLittle overlap between situations, original and transfer settings are dissimilar.PositiveWhat is learned in one context enhances learning in a different setting. NegativeWhat is learned in one context hinders or delays learning in a different setting. VerticalKnowledge of a previous topic is essential to acquire new knowledge. HorizontalKnowledge of a previous topic is not essential but helpful to learn a new topic. LiteralIntact knowledge transfers to new task. FiguralUse some aspect of general knowledge to think or learn about a problem. Low RoadTransfer of well-established skills in almost automatic fashion. High RoadTransfer involves abstraction so conscious formulations of connections between contexts.High Road/Forward ReachingAbstracting situations from a learning context to a potential transfer context. High Road/Backward ReachingAbstracting in the transfer context features of a previous situation where new skills and knowledge were learned. Apart from the effect-based distinction between negative and positive transfer, taxonomies have largely been constructed along two, mostly tacit, dimensions. One concerns the predicted relationship between the primary and secondary learning situation in terms of the categorical overlap of features and knowledge specificity constraints.The other concerns general assumptions about how t ransfer relationships are established, in terms of mental effort and cognitive process. The effect-perspective: positive vs. negative transfer Starting by looking at the effect side of transfer – in terms of the common performance criteria, speed and accuracy – transfer theories distinguish between two broad classes that underlie all other classifications: negative andpositive transfer. Negative transfer refers to the impairment of current learning and performance due to the application of non-adaptive or inappropriate information or behavior.Therefore, negative transfer is a type of interference effect of prior experience causing a slow-down in learning, completion or solving of a new task when compared to the performance of a hypothetical control group with no respective prior experience. Positive transfer, in contrast, emphasizes the beneficial effects of prior experience on current thinking and action. It is important to understand that the positive and negative ef fects of transfer are not mutually exclusive, and therefore real-life transfer effects are probably mostly a mixture of both.Positive transfer: transfer of learning or training is said to be positive when the learning or training carried out in one situation proves helpful to learning in another situation. Examples of such transfer are: †¢the knowledge and skills related to school mathematics help in the learning of statistical computation; †¢the knowledge and skills acquired in terms of addition and subtraction in mathematics in school may help a child in the acquisition of knowledge and skills regarding multiplication and division; †¢learning to play badminton may help an individual to play ping pong (table tennis) and lawn tennis.The situation perspective: specific vs. general, near vs. far transfer The situation-driven perspective on transfer taxonomies is concerned with describing the relation between transfer source (i. e. , the prior experience) and transfer ta rget (i. e. , the novel situation). In other words, the notion of novelty of the target situation per se is worthless without specifying the degree of novelty in relation to something that existed before. Butterfield and Nelson (1991), for example, distinguish between within-task, across-task, and inventive transfer.A similar classification approach reappears in many situation-driven transfer taxonomies (e. g. , similar vs. different situations, example-to-principle and vice versa, simple-to-complex and vice versa) and can be noted as distinctions made along the specific vs. general dimension. Mayer and Wittrock (1996, pp. 49ff. ) discuss transfer under the labels of general â€Å"transfer of general skill† (e. g. , â€Å"Formal Discipline†, Binet, 1899), â€Å"specific transfer of specific skill† (e. g. , Thorndike’s, 1924a, b, â€Å"identical elements† theory), â€Å"specific transfer of general skill† (e. g. Gestaltists' transfer theory, see origins with Judd, 1908), and â€Å"meta-cognitive control of general and specific skills† as a sort of combination of the previous three views (see, e. g. , Brown, 1989). Haskell's (2001) taxonomy proposes a more gradual scheme of similarity between tasks and situations. It distinguishes between non-specific transfer (i. e. , the constructivist idea that all learning builds on present knowledge), application transfer (i. e. , the retrieval and use of knowledge on a previously learned task), context transfer (actually meaning context-free transfer between similar tasks), near vs. ar transfer, and finally displacement or creative transfer (i. e. , an inventive or analytic type of transfer that refers to the creation of a new solution during problem solving as a result of a synthesis of past and current learning experiences). Both near and far transfer are widely used terms in the literature. The former refers to transfer of learning when task and/or context change slightly but remain largely similar, the latter to the application of learning experiences to related but largely dissimilar problems. The process perspectiveThe specific vs. general dimension applies not just to the focus on the relation between source and target, i. e. , from where to where is transferred, but also to the question about the transfer process itself, i. e. , what is transferred and how. Reproductive vs. productive transfer (see Robertson, 2001) are good examples of this type of distinction, whereas reproductive transfer refers to the simple application of knowledge to a novel task, productive transfer implies adaptation; i. e. mutation and enhancement of retained information.A similar dichotomous distinction is the one between knowledge transfer and problem-solving transfer (Mayer & Wittrock, 1996). Knowledge transfer takes place when knowing something after learning task A facilitates or interferes with the learning process or performance in task B. Knowledge used is refer red to by many different terms, such as declarative or procedural types (Anderson, 1976), but it means that there are representational elements that suit A and B. Problem solving transfer, on the other hand, is described as somewhat more â€Å"fluid knowledge† transfer, so that experience in solving a problem A helps finding a solution to problem B.This can mean that the two problems share little in terms of specific declarative knowledge entities or procedures, but call for a similar approach, or solution search strategies (e. g. , heuristics and problem solving methods). The issues discussed in problem-solving transfer literature are also closely related to the concepts of strategic and theoretic transfer (Haskell, 2001, p. 31), and cognitive research on analogical reasoning, rule-based thinking and meta-cognition.Indeed, far transfer can be considered as the prototypical type of transfer, and it is closely related to the study of analogical reasoning (see also Barnett & Ce ci, 2002, for a taxonomy of far transfer). Within the problem-solving literature the distinction between specific and general methods is made mostly with reference to Newell and Simon's (1972) strong vs. weak problem solving methods (Chi, Glaser & Farr, 1988; Ericsson & Smith, 1991; Singley & Anderson, 1989; Sternberg & Frensch, 1991). Another concern that is frequently addressed in transfer taxonomies is the question of conscious effort.High-road vs. low-road transfer (Mayer & Wittrock, 1996; Salomon & Perkins, 1989) expresses a distinction between such instances of transfer where active retrieval, mapping, and inference processes take place, as opposed to those instances that occur rather spontaneously or automatically. Hence, low-road transfer concerns frequently employed mental representations and automated, proceduralized knowledge, and occurs preferably in near transfer settings. In contrast, high-road transfer is more conception-driven, and requires cognitive and meta-cogniti ve effort. Traditional fields of transfer researchThere are a nearly unlimited number of research fields that share some applied interest into the study of transfer, as it pertains to learning in general. Three fields that contributed in most substantial ways to the progress of transfer research, both from a conception and empirical point of view, are the fields of education science, linguistics, and human-computer interaction (HCI). In fact, most transfer research has been conducted in reference to one of these applied settings, rather than in basic cognitive psychological laboratory conditions. Education science: teaching for transferDue to their core concern with learning, educational science and practice are the classic fields of interest regarding transfer research, and probably the prime target for the application of theories. Transfer of learning represents much of the very basis of the educational purpose itself. What is learned inside one classroom about a certain subject s hould aid in the attainment of related goals in other classroom settings, and beyond that it should be applicable to the student's developmental tasks outside the school; the need for transfer becomes more accentuated.This is because the world educators teach in today is different from the world they themselves experienced as students, and differs equally from the one their students will have to cope with in the future. By nature of their applied interest, educationalists' main concern has been less with the question of how transfer takes place, and much more with under what conditions, or, that it happens at all. The basic conviction that student's learning and achievement levels depend primarily on learning and achievement prerequisites, has constituted a central part in educational learning theories for quite some time (Gage & Berliner, 1983; Glaser, 984). The major focus in educational transfer studies has, therefore, been on what kind of initial learning enables subsequent tran sfer: teaching for transfer. Research on learning and transfer has identified key characteristics with implications for educational practice. From Formal Discipline to meta-cognition Educational transfer paradigms have been changing quite radically over the last one hundred years.According to the doctrinaire beliefs of the Formal Discipline (Binet, 1899) transfer was initially viewed as a kind of global spread of capabilities accomplished by training basic mental faculties (e. g. , logic, attention, memory) in the exercise of suitable subjects, such as Latin or geometry. With the turn of the 20th century, learning, and therefore transfer of learning, was increasingly captured in behavioral and empiricist terms, as in the Connectionist and Associationist theories of Thorndike (e. g. , 1932), Guthrie (e. g. , 1935), Hull (e. g. , 1943), and Skinner (e. g. , 1938).Thorndike (1923, 1924a and b) attacked the Formal Discipline empirically and theoretically and introduced the theory of â⠂¬Å"identical elements†, which is probably still today the most influential conception about transfer (Thorndike, 1906; Thorndike & Woodworth, 1901a, b and c). Thorndike's belief that transfer of learning occurs when learning source and learning target share common stimulus-response elements prompted calls for a hierarchical curricular structure in education. â€Å"Lower† and specific skills should be learned before more complex skills, which were presumed to consist largely of configuration of basic skills.This small-to-large learning, also referred to as part-to-whole or vertical transfer, has been popular with theories of learning hierarchies (Gagne, 1968). It has later been challenged from conceptualistic point of views, which argue that learning is not just an accumulation of pieces of knowledge (i. e. , rote memorization), but rather a process and product of active construction of cognitive knowledge structures (Bruner, 1986; Bruner, Goodnow & Austin, 1956). Knowl edge, from a constructivist perspective, was no more believed to be a simple transfer by generalization to all kinds of situations and tasks that contain similar components (i. . , stimulus-response patterns; see also Logan, 1988; Meyers & Fisk, 1987; Osgood, 1949; Pavlov, 1927). The critical issue was the identification of similarities in general principles and concepts behind the facades of two dissimilar problems; i. e. , transfer by insight. This idea became popular in the Gestaltists' view on transfer (e. g. , Katona, 1940), and, in combination with growing interest in learners as self activated problem-solvers (Bruner, 1986), encouraged the search for abstract problem-solving methods and mental schemata, which serve as analogy-enhancing transfer-bridges between different task situations.Emerging from these developments, a new theme started to dominate educationalists' research in transfer: meta-cognition (Brown, 1978; Brown & Campione, 1981; Campione & Brown, 1987; Flavell, 19 76). In contrast to classical knowledge forms like declarative and procedural knowledge, different types of meta-knowledge and meta-cognitive skills such as strategic knowledge, heuristics, self-monitoring skills, and self-regulation quickly became the road to learning and transfer.Characterized as self-conscious management and organization of acquired knowledge (Brown, 1987) it is evident that meta-cognitive awareness of task features, problem structures, and solution methods makes relations between different situations cognitively salient: only an individual who learns from learning, learns for future learning. Soini (1999) developed on the same core ideas an examination of the preconditions for active transfer. Her emphasis is on the active and self-reflected management of knowledge to increase its accessibility.To some researchers, meta-cognition and transfer have become so entangled that the argument was generated that only the measurement of positive transfer effects truly sup ports inferences that meta-cognitive learning has taken place (e. g. MacLeod, Butler & Syer, 1996). The generality predicament: return to the specificity view Ever since the introduction of the meta-knowledge theme in education science, transfer discussions have been oscillating between the position taken by those representing the meta-cognitive view and those who stress that generic knowledge forms alone do not allow an effective transfer of learning.When knowledge stays â€Å"on the tip of the tongue†, just knowing that one knows a solution to a problem, without being able to transfer specific declarative knowledge (i. e. , know-what) or automated procedural knowledge (i. e. , know-how), does not suffice. Specific teaching of the cognitive and behavioral requisites for transfer marked in principle a return to the identical element view, and can be summarized with Dettermann's (1993) conclusion that transfer does not substantially go beyond the restricted boundaries of what has been specifically taught and learned.The basic transfer paradigms in educational psychology keep replicating themselves, and fundamental promotion of transfer itself is seen to be achievable through sensibilization of students by creating a general culture and â€Å"a spirit of transfer† inside the classroom on the one hand, and by allowing concrete learning from transfer models on the other (Haskell, 2001). Learning and transfer: implications for educational practice A modern view of transfer in the context of educational practice shows little need to distinguish between the general and specific paradigms, recognizing the role of both identical elements and metacognition.In this view, the work of Bransford, Brown and Cocking (1999) identified four key characteristics of learning as applied to transfer. They are: 1. The necessity of initial learning; 2. The importance of abstract and contextual knowledge; 3. The conception of learning as an active and dynamic process; and 4. The notion that all learning is transfer. First, the necessity of initial learning for transfer specifies that mere exposure or memorization is not learning; there must be understanding.Learning as understanding takes time, such that expertise with deep, organized knowledge improves transfer. Teaching that emphasizes how to use knowledge or that improves motivation should enhance transfer. Second, while knowledge anchored in context is important for initial learning, it is also inflexible without some level of abstraction that goes beyond the context. Practices to improve transfer include having students specify connections across multiple contexts or having them develop general solutions and strategies that would apply beyond a single-context case.Third, learning should be considered an active and dynamic process, not a static product. Instead of one-shot tests that follow learning tasks, students can improve transfer by engaging in assessments that extend beyond current abilit ies. Improving transfer in this way requires instructor prompts to assist students – such as dynamic assessments – or student development of metacognitive skills without prompting. Finally, the fourth characteristic defines all learning as transfer.New learning builds on previous learning, which implies that teachers can facilitate transfer by activating what students know and by making their thinking visible. This includes addressing student misconceptions and recognizing cultural behaviors that students bring to learning situations. A student-learning centered view of transfer embodies these four characteristics. With this conception, teachers can help students transfer learning not just between contexts in academics, but also to common home, work, or community environments. Inter-language transferAnother traditional field of applied research is inter-language transfer. Here, the central questions were: how does learning one language (L1) facilitate or interfere (Wei nreich, 1953) with the acquisition of and proficiency in a second language (L2), and how does the training and use of L2, in turn, affect L1? Several variations of this conception of inter-language transfer can be found in the literature, also referred to as mother tongue influence or cross language interference (Corder, 1983, 1994; Faerch & Kasper, 1987; Jiang & Kuehn, 2001; Odlin, 1989; O’Malley nd Chamot, 1990). What makes inter-language transfer a complex and valuable research matter is the fact that language knowledge skills continuously develop. This is so for L1, as well as for L2, when only bilingualism is considered, while alternately at least one of them is continuously in use. This has led to the development of very different models of how languages are mentally represented and managed, with L1 and L2 seen as two independent or autonomous mental systems (e. g. Genesee, 1989; Grosjean, 1989), as being represented in a single unified system (e. g.Redlinger & Park, 19 80; Swain, 1977), and as rooting in a common underlying, multi-lingual conceptual base (CUCB; see Kecskes & Papp, 2000). Human-Computer Interaction: designing for transfer A third research area that has produced a variety of transfer models and empirical results can be located within the field of Human-Computer Interaction (HCI). With the start of the user age in the 1980s, HCI and all kinds of virtual environments have, in many ways, become something like psychological micro-worlds for cognitive research. This is naturally also reflected in the study of transfer.Developments in favor of cognitive approaches to transfer research were especially accelerated by rapid changes in modern lifestyles, resulting in a virtual upsurge of cognitive demands in interaction with technology. Thus, the call was on clearly domain-focused cognitive models to study the way users learn and perform when interacting with information technological systems (Card, Moran & Newell, 1980a and b, 1983; Olson & Olson, 1990; Payne & Green, 1986; Polson, 1987, 1988). Transfer based on the user complexity theory Thorough investigations of cognitive skills involved in HCI tasks have their origins with the research on text editing (e. . , Kieras & Polson, 1982, 1985; Singley & Anderson, 1985). The offspring of this type of research were computational cognitive models and architectures of various degrees of sophistication, suitable for all kinds of man-machine interaction studies, as well as studies outside of the HCI domain. The original examples for these have become Kieras and Polson's (1985) user complexity theory (later rephrased as cognitive complexity theory) and the GOMS family (i. e. , Goals, Operators, Methods, Selection) rules based on the Model Human Processor framework (Card et al. , 1980a and b, 1983; John & Kieras, 1996a and b).All of these models have their roots in the basic principles of production systems and can be comprehended with the help of ends-means-selections and If-Th en-rules, combined with the necessary declarative and procedural knowledge (Anderson, 1995; Newell & Simon, 1972). The crucial perspective for transfer became that of technology design. By applying cognitive models, scientists and practitioners aimed at minimizing the amount and complexity of new knowledge necessary to understand and perform tasks on a device, without trading off too much utility value (Polson & Lewis, 1990).A key responsibility was given to skill and knowledge transfer. Due to the fact that the cognitive complexity theory is a psychological theory of transfer applied to HCI (Bovair, Kieras, & Polson, 1990; Polson & Kieras, 1985), the central question was how these models, united under the GOMS umbrella, can be used to explain and predict transfer of learning. The basic transfer-relevant assumptions of the emerging models were that production rules are cognitive units, they are all equally difficult to learn, and that learned rules can be transferred to a new task w ithout any cost.Because learning time for any task is seen as a function of the number of new rules that the user must learn, total learning time is directly reduced by inclusion of productions the user is already familiar with. The basic message of the cognitive complexity theory is to conceptualize and induce transfer from one system to another by function of shared production rules, which is a new interpretation of Thorndike's (1923, 1924a and b) identical element premise and eventually echoed in Singley and Anderson's (1989) theory of transfer (Bovair et al. 1990; Kieras & Bovair, 1986; Polson & Kieras, 1985; Polson, Muncher & Engelbeck, 1986). A practical implication of the procedural communality principle has been formulated by Lewis and Rieman (1993), who suggest something like â€Å"transfer of design† on the side of the industry: â€Å"You should find existing interfaces that work for users and then build ideas from those interfaces into your systems as much as prac tically and legally possible. † Emergence of holistic views of useDiscouraged by the confined character of the GOMS-related transfer models, many research groups began to import and advance new concepts, such as schemata principles and general methods; a general development encouraged by the emerging cognitive approach to transfer that was also witnessed by other applied fields. Bhavnani and John (2000) analyzed different computer applications and strived to identify such user strategies (i. e. , general methods to perform a certain task), which generalize across three distinct computer domains (word processor, spreadsheet, and CAD).Their conclusive argument is that â€Å"strategy-conducive systems could facilitate the transfer of knowledge† (p. 338). Other research groups' authors that assessed the questions about how people learn in interaction with information systems, evaluated the usefulness of metaphors and how these should be taken into consideration when designi ng for exploratory environments (e. g. Baecker, Grudin, Buxton, & Greenberg, 1995; Carroll & Mack, 1985, Condon, 1999).As researchers became increasingly interested in the quality of a user's knowledge representation (e. g. , Gott, Hall, Pokorny, Dibble, & Glaser, 1993), mental models and adaptive expertise, as knowledge and skills which generalizes across different contexts of complex problem-solving tasks, became of paramount concern (Gentner & Stevens, 1983; Gott, 1989; Kieras & Bovair, 1984). In contrast to the knowledge of strategies (Bhavnani & John, 2000), the accentuation shifted towards strategic knowledge (Gott et al. 1993). Gott et al. demonstrated that surface similarities between different technical domains alone did not essentially facilitate transfer of learning because they limited the user's flexibility in the adaptation process. In accordance with the ideas of schema-based and meta-cognitive transfer, the authors further formulated that â€Å"robust performance is one in which procedural steps are not just naked, rule-based actions, but instead are supported by explanations that perform like theories to enable adaptiveness† (p. 60). Gott et al. (1993) finally noted that mental models might be powerful instruments to analyze similarities between tasks as represented within a formulated cognitive architecture. However, they do not explain what particular similarities and differences are sufficiently salient from the individual's mental point of view to affect transfer of learning, nor can they predict motivational or emotional conditions of transfer that are essential requisites for every learning process.

The Number One Question You Must Ask for White Collar Crime Essay Topics

The Number One Question You Must Ask for White Collar Crime Essay Topics For example, in the usa, the investigations and prosecution are complete by federal agencies like the Federal Bureau of Investigation along with the office of the Attorney General. The issue here is that the whole system is organized in such a manner that such crimes are frequently quite tough to detect despite the simple fact they cost in billions of dollars. Evidently, this sort of crime can have a huge effect on society. White-collar crime is believed to be an extremely considerable type of crime in the United States of america, next in significance simply to face-to-face violence. The truth is that the independence which you will gain from becoming your own boss is going to be life changing and it can likewise be dramatically life improving as well. You are going to have challenging time not appreciating the simple fact that you do not have to answer to anyone but yourself. To a lot of people it's not a crime, but a way around the computer system. A whole lot of people trusted me, he explained. Basically these scams request that you send money for something that's non-existent. A time as soon as the words thieves and businessmen go together. For instance, computer crime and charge card frauds that were unheard of twenty decades ago, are shaking the roots of the nation's financial system. Business crime addresses the company for a whole. So that the government of every nation should make sure that there has to be a suitable investigation about the criminal cases that are related to higher profile people and poor one. The federal in addition to state governments attach a great deal of weight to white collar crimes. Our judicial system has to be strong enough to address the folks who commit white collar crimes. For all the reasons outlined above, most scholars agree that while the criminal justice process is a significant part of white-collar crime control, it shouldn't be the very first field of defense. What Does White Collar Crime Essay Topics Mean? Regardless of what genre you would like Business Studies, Microeconomics, Business Management and Financial Accounting, we're here to serve your needs. Agencies routinely request industry input on the evolution and implementation of rules. In today's business environment, though, a new array of white collar crime has developed dependent on the usage of information technology. It's this mixture of evocative characteristics that keeps the notion of white-collar crime alive despite its flawed logical status. To compose an essay on white collar crime demands the appropriate skills essential to compose the paper. To compose an essay on white collar crime students should have information on the several forms of crimes which occur in the white collar job atmosphere. So should you need to employ college essay writer online, we're just the people that you want to contact. Once you receive a task done from us you will return again if you need assistance with another one of your essays. I believe that's an effective teaching tool. The ethics aren't considered in that argument. The War Against White Collar Crime Essay Topics Even if it can be proven that the claim isn't accurate, the physician may continue to be in a position to argue successfully in court he or she did not mean to submit a false claim. In case the money cannot be recovered, a criminal might technically steal all the savings of folks who depend upon those savings to be able to live. Among the most common white-collar crimes is embezzlement. Likewise, in regards to dumping of commercial waste, the laws require the procedure to be environmental friendly, which can be quite costly. The hallmark of several white-collar crimes, nevertheless, is sophistication. The discipline of fraud concealment homicide is comparatively new. The criminality counterfeits the excellent citizen. The denial of criminal intent is an extremely common quality of white-collar trials.

Motivation Theories in Education - Free Essay Example

Sample details Pages: 4 Words: 1303 Downloads: 5 Date added: 2017/09/14 Category Advertising Essay Did you like this example? The reason why we study psychology in education is to understand why human beings act the way they do. One other reason is to influence, by changing or improving, their actions. Motivation is only one of the central issues in psychology. Don’t waste time! Our writers will create an original "Motivation Theories in Education" essay for you Create order However, it is one of education as well. The importance of motivation in learning has long been established and certainly much has been written about it. However, we still seem to encounter a problem when it comes to knowing what motivation exactly is. As Drucker puts it, â€Å"We know nothing about motivation. All we can do is write about it. Whatever is being aroused by the smart use of reinforcers remains largely mysterious and elusive. â€Å"Motivation, like the concept of gravity, is easier to describe (in terms of its outward, observable effects), than it is to define. Of course, this has not stopped people from trying. † Covington, 1998 Simply put, motivation justifies behaviour. Why, for example, does a student decide to misbehave in class? Why does another one behave? The answer to these questions is very simple. Different people have different reasons to achieve different things. A student might misbehave in class in order to gain his class mates’ attention. What students learn, how much they remember and how engaged they become in the process depends largely on which reasons for learning dominate. Over the past several decades, two broadly different conceptions of achievement motivation have emerged (Covington, 1992). One perspective views motivation as a drive, that is, an internal state or need that impels individuals toward action (Heyman Dweck, 1992). A second perspective considers motivation in terms of goals or incentives that draw, not drive, individuals toward action (Heyman Dweck, 1992). Motives as Drives Three major theories fall under this conception of achievement motivation. First we find the Need Achievement Theory which was developed initially by John Atkinson (1957/1987) and by David McClelland (1965). This theory states that human achievement is the result of a conflict between striving for success and avoiding failure. It is the difference in emotional anticipation, more precisely pride versus shame that brings an individual into acting in a particular way. The second theory is the Attribution Theory. Beginning in the early 1970’s, and having Bernard Weiner as its pioneer, the theory poses a radical reinterpretation of the Need Achievement Theory of the 50s. As opposed to Atkinson, Weiner believed that thought processes rather than emotional anticipations were the agents responsible for the quality of achievement. Weiner stated that how individuals perceive their prior successes and failures is the deciding factor in choosing whether to engage in a particular task and in deciding how long to persist once it begins and with what amount of enthusiasm. The shift from emotions to cognition is a very subtle one but has very important implications on education. For example, if cognition is what controls motivation, then educators would be better off if they taught their students how to analyse the causes of their successes and failures in the most constructive, yet realistic, ways possible. One of the main features of the attribution theory is that of the role of effort in achievement. Weiner et al. believed that student effort can be controlled by teachers through the application of rewards for trying and, when necessary, punishment for not trying. Whether this premise is true or not is largely debatable. One thing is sure †¦ teachers do put it into practice. Students whom teachers see as having studied hard are rewarded more in success and reprimanded less in failure than students who do not try. The third theory falling under the conception of achievement motivation is the Self-Worth Theory. In our society, success is largely measured by one’s ability to achieve competitively. Nothing contributes more to a student’s sense of self-esteem than good grades, nor shatters it so completely as do poor grades (Rosenberg, 1965). Thus it is achievement that dominates in the mind of most school children. This explains the fact that ability affects the level of self-esteem in an individual (Berry, 1975). This theory conflicts with that of attribution. The Attribution Theory emphasises on effort, while the self-worth theory emphasises rather more on those sources of worth and pride that follow from feeling smart, such as is self-esteem. This conflict could be avoided only if we take a different approach in our education system. Unfortunately, in our system, it is ability which is rewarded rather than effort. A student who puts little effort but is able to pass his/her exam is definitely rewarded more than the one who puts a great deal of effort without succeeding in passing the exam. This is what Covington (1979),and Omelich call a â€Å"double-edged sword†. The Self-Worth Theory argues that the protection of a sense of ability is the student’s highest priority. What this theory implies is that students may not study in order to have an excuse for failing that does not reflect poorly on their ability. A number of strategies for avoiding failure, or at least avoiding the implications of failure, have been identified by researchers such as Birney, Burdick and Teevan (1969). According to this theory, the student who misbehaves in class is already motivated, driven by circumstances to protect his or her self-esteem. Thus, the misbehaviour is just the result of being motivated but for the wrong reasons! Therefore, the solution would be for educators to change the reasons that lead to disobedience or misbehaviour rather than simply increase rewards for effort and punishment for not trying. Once the teacher changes the reason/s for which students learn, from negative to positive, the symptoms should coincidentally disappear. This theory is useful because it helps us in identifying what are not the causes of failure in the will to learning. Motives as goals â€Å"The answer to school reform lays not so much in increasing motivation – that is, arousing existing drive levels – as it is in encouraging different kinds of motivation together. The key to this transformation is to view motivation not in terms of drives, but in terms of goals, and goals that are largely intrinsic in nature. † Deci, 1975 Intrinsic motivation refers to the goal of becoming more effective as a person. It is motivation that arises from within the person, rather than from the external environment. A student who behaves well during school hours because he/she thinks it is good for his/her well-being is intrinsically motivated. In this case, learning becomes valued for what it can do to enhance one’s effectiveness. The key to understand intrinsic motivation is that the reward for learning lies in the action themselves. Satisfying a personal interest is intrinsic in itself, while good grades or praise are extrinsic. The kinds of goals which are ideal for students are the ones that are intrinsic in nature. Because intrinsic reasons are their own reward, the payoffs for learning are attributed to all, not just a few individuals. Also, when the individual is intrinsically motivated learning becomes the means to an end, not an isolated event whose only purpose is to get the right answer or to please the teacher. Where education is concerned, things go better when intrinsic motives predominate. For example, a student who behaves well in class because it gives him a sense of pride or satisfaction is better off than the student who behaves well because he is given good comments by the teacher in return. I feel that here it is important to note that intrinsic motivation may originally start through extrinsic reinforcement. For example, the student who originally behaves well in class because he/she is praised by the teacher may continue doing so in the future because of, for example, pride in doing so, rather than the teacher’s praise. Motivational contracts may be an alternative favouring such a situation. These will be discussed next.